WMO, UNESCO, FAO, including Mountain Partnership Secretariat

High Mountain water, weather, and climate

A strategy to convene the international community to close the data and information gap regarding existing and emerging challenges from changes in High Mountain regions
Authors:
Carolina Adler, Charles Fierz, Phillipe Gyarmati, Christian Huggel, Abdulhamid Kayumov, Samuel Morin, Guillermo Navarro, John Pomeroy, Mathias Rotach, Yves-Alain Roulet, Robert Sandford.
Agencies contributing to the development of this paper: WMO, UNESCO, FAO, including Mountain Partnership Secretariat

Section 1 Introduction
1.1 Scope
This paper addresses Resolution 27 (EC-70) on the Terms of Reference of the Executive Council Panel of Experts on Polar and High Mountain Observations, Research, and Services (EC PHORS), requesting “To develop a strategy on WMO high mountain regions focused activities, including by considering an initiative similar to YOPP (Year of Polar Prediction) for the next financial period to be submitted to Congress at its Eighteenth session for its consideration”, and will provide the basis for the key topics of the program of the High Mountain Summit (Decision 42(EC-70)), and will inform the roadmap of activities and engagements within the WMO 2030 long term goals.
The paper summarises key impacts of changing high mountain cryosphere and environments, it identifies critical gaps in the ability to tackle those challenges, and provides recommendations on actions for developing a multi-level, multidimensional strategy and immediate paths forward. It, also, provides a framework for engagement of stakeholders, the international community, United Nations and funding agencies.
1.2 Call for action
WMO, in coordination with other lead UN agencies working on mountain issues such as UNESCO –IHP, FAO and the Mountain Partnership, and others, have the ability to convene the international community, governments, and influential partners to elevate the visibility of impacts of high mountain changes, and of the urgency of fostering effective action within the UN framework.
Four overarching High Mountain Grand Challenges are recommended to foster a partnership framework for developing and implementing adaptation strategies for mountains, in the context of existing global frameworks, which will be initially addressed by the High Mountain Summit. Convening a forum on how to identify and address user-led questions, provides a basis for WMO to then facilitate the design of solutions to these questions, develop broad partnerships and organise the implementation of programmes, operations and services that will deliver concrete benefits for society.
o Address socially relevant user-led and rights-holders led questions on how to adapt and how to manage mountain cryosphere, ecosystems, hydrology and development to promote ecosystem conservation, provide social benefits and direct sustainable development along ‘climate resilient development pathways’.
o Identify and address critical gaps in mountain earth systems science, observations and predictive capacity through advancing science, observing systems and predictive models in the context of identifying system and societal resilience to global change and development pressures in mountains.
o Develop global mountain earth system forecasting and prediction systems to inform mountain communities of policy options to become resilient and to reduce and manage risk from mountain-based extreme events and climate change, both in the mountain headwaters and downstream.
o Urge and facilitate the advancement of knowledge and implementation of these systems and solutions by member states and partners for mutual benefit within a global framework.

While mountain regions represent a key to the overall climate system, accounting for mountain regions’ complex climatic processes in the information value chain, has remained a challenge, in many regions of the globe. Internationally coordinated actions are required with a more holistic and multidimensional approach, and recognizing the regional differences, within the framework provided by the High Mountain Grand Challenges. These actions need to address (i) coordination and governance, (ii) availability and dissemination of observations, data, and information, (iii) coordinated scientific knowledge to address emerging threats, and (iv) sustainable operational services, (v) investment mechanisms.
As noted in the recent Hindu Kush Himalayan Monitoring and Assessment Programme (HIMAP) report, “From a policy standpoint, achieving food, water, energy, and livelihood security in the region will require exploring scenarios based on different assumptions so that the scientific community, policy-makers, the private sector, and community stakeholders can come together and make optimal governance decisions to sustain this global asset. It will also require country-specific recommendations to guide national-level policy-making.”
Also, according to a recent UNESCO publication1, The Andean region is undergoing significant climatic changes that will have far-reaching consequences for the environment, and the lives of many Andean people. Communities will need to tackle the challenges resulting from climate change, such as water scarcity, unpredictable water availability, and flooding and other climate hazards. Adaptation needs to be based on careful analysis of the underlying socio-economic factors […] in order to avoid maladaptation.
1.3 Relevant International Agenda
The UN General Assembly Resolution A/RES/71/234 (Dec 2016) on Sustainable Mountain Development recognized “that mountains provide sensitive indications of climate change through phenomena such as modifications to biological diversity, the retreat of mountain glaciers, flash floods and changes in seasonal runoff, which are having an impact on major sources of freshwater in the world, and stresses the need to undertake actions to minimize the negative effects of these phenomena, promote adaptation measures and prevent the loss of biological diversity.” The Resolution “Encourages all relevant entities of the United Nations system, within their respective mandates, to further enhance their constructive efforts to strengthen inter-agency collaboration to promote sustainable mountain development.”
The provision of enhanced, comprehensive, end-to-end, long-term, monitoring, prediction and forecasting services is necessary to equip governments with tools and capacity to develop adequate adaptation plans and on defining and meeting mountain specific targets within the international policy frameworks. These include the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, the Conference Of Parties (COP) on UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Paris Agreement on climate change, and the 2030 Agenda embracing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), as well as an associated Framework for Action for implementing the 2030 Agenda for Mountains approved in December 2017 by Mountain Partnership members.

An important reference will be the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC), which has a chapter on “High Mountains”, to be launched in September 2019, as well as the cross-chapter paper on ‘Mountains’ to feature in the IPCC’s sixth assessment report (AR6) Working Group II contribution on Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, scheduled for publication in 2021. Additionally, the snow glacier and water resources programme activities of the 8th Phase of the International Hydrological Programme (IHP VIII, 2014-2021), the International Decade for Action: Water for Sustainable Development (2018-2028), the International Mountain Day (celebrated yearly, on December 11th), the International Decade for family farming (2019-2028), the proposed International Year of Snow and Ice, UNESCO IHP RESOLUTION XVIII-13, the WMO’S Executive Council Decision 43 , 2018, provide a long term framework for action.
Section 2 Mountains in a changing climate
2.1 Impacts from a changing climate
Mountain regions cover about a quarter of the Earth’s land surface, and are the water towers of the world, centres of biological and cultural diversity, and of traditional knowledge, being home to a quarter of the world’s population.
Rising global temperatures are causing meteorological, cryospheric, hydrological, and ecological system changes in mountain regions. As all major rivers originate from mountains, there is increasing recognition of the fundamental role played by the mountain cryosphere (glaciers, snow, and permafrost), and high-altitude ecosystems (such as páramo systems in the tropical Andes) in providing and regulating freshwater resources for around half of the world’s population (Egan and Price, 20172), including for those living in densely populated lowland areas, such as the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta. Accelerated changes in mountain regions have cascading effects, affecting global issues such as food security, migration, and political stability. In many places, these threats exacerbate existing vulnerabilities caused by poverty, food insecurity, insufficient infrastructure, environmental degradation, and limited resources.
Alterations and loss of critical mountain ecosystems are increasing the risk of disasters, and could be exacerbated by climate change-induced feedback processes. Earlier snowmelt, the rising of the snow line, permafrost thaw, and accelerated glacier melt, are increasing the risks of floods, including flash floods and rain on snow floods, glacier lake outburst floods (GLOFs), avalanches, landslides, rockfalls, slope failure, river damming from surging glaciers, and other related hazards and extreme events. The disappearance of glaciers increases the risk of unsustainable water resources and draughts.
Large mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas, the Tibetan plateau, the Andes, the Ethiopian highland, the Rockies, the Alps and the highest free standing mountains such as Kilimanjaro, play a key role in the evolution of large scale weather systems (e.g. altering the monsoonal circulations). Climatically induced changes in regions with snow, glaciers, and permafrost could trigger feedback processes and changes in the precipitation and freshwater regulation regimes at large, even continental scale. These feedback mechanisms and their impacts are, as yet, to be fully understood and quantified.
In spite of these challenges, mountain areas are generally under-sampled (observational networks), and processes over complex mountain terrain are, generally, under-understood.
2.2 Most affected sectors
All sectors sustaining livelihoods and well-being in the mountains and downstream, are affected by meteorological phenomena and their long-term changes, to various degrees. The higher uncertainty in water availability affects the agriculture, the forestry and fisheries, hydropower production, food production, transportation, tourism, infrastructure, baseline human consumption, and human health.
2.3 Existing coordination mechanisms
International coordination for hydrometeorological operational programs is provided by WMO, although many of its programmes do not have a specific mountain focus.
International coordination in scientific developments exist such as the World Climate Research Programme, in particular GEWEX, and its initiative on the International Network of Alpine Research Catchment Hydrology (INARCH), WMO’s Global Cryosphere Watch (GCW), the Mountain Research Initiative (MRI). Other more regional programs like the pan-Third Pole Environment programme and the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) are increasingly relevant mechanisms of coordination and action. The International Hydrological Programme (IHP) of UNESCO provides a platform for scientific networking and capacity building, contributing to the assessment and monitoring of changes, and recommending options for adaptation to the member states.
Scientific cooperation as within the Multi-Scale Transport and Exchange Processes in the Atmosphere over Mountains Experiment (TEAMx) initiative, the MRI’s Elevation Dependent Warming (EDW) Working Group, and several WCRP projects, already involve operational and scientific organizations working together for better understanding the atmospheric processes over mountain regions.
At the policy level, the Mountain Partnership is the United Nations voluntary alliance mandated to promote Sustainable Mountain Development, actively raising awareness through international processes, in relevant global and regional fora. Its 360 members, include sixty Governments, which provide direct access to policy makers. Its secretariat is hosted by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
Some specific regional funding coordination for mountain regions exists, such as the European INTERREG programmes. At country level, funding through the World Bank – Global Facility for Disaster Risk and Resilience, the Green Climate Fund, and others, provide mechanisms for specific adaptation projects, however, their coupling with a strategic focus on addressing mountain changes, is yet to be achieved, sustainably.
The international policy, scientific, programmatic efforts need to be sustainably coordinated and synergized, including with existing funding mechanisms, to be better anchored in the international political frame and be more policy-driven. The current gaps and uncertainties need to be addresses by developing sustained mechanisms to monitor observed changes and report impacts linked to international, relevant frameworks, and provide solutions tailored to threats to mountain environments.
Section 3: Current status
3.1 Policy gaps for changing mountain environments
Although snow and ice in the mountain regions are important reservoirs of freshwater, the impacts of mountain cryosphere on the global water resources and as a natural hazard, are not well articulated in major international policy frameworks, and mountains are not the subject of any high-level international climate, weather and water initiative. For example, the Paris agreement makes no mention of mountains, while the Sustainable Development Goals mention mountains, only in SDG 6 and SDG 15.
As water security is becoming one of the greatest challenges of the world’s population, and a source of political tension within and between nations, the absence of such references makes the task of developing and implementing relevant policies, much more difficult.
Often, impacts of changes in high mountain regions are felt in countries other than where changes occur, being transmitted from headwaters downstream by hydrological systems to vast human populations and the oceans. Even national agendas can be problematic in that mountainous regions may constitute only a part of the country’s territory and having low population densities, and have limited leverage over the ranking of national priority policies.
The benefits of science available to be bestowed on mountain regions remain atomized. Policy inputs building on scientific tools, are mostly confined within national contexts, which create discontinuities at borders.
Scientific assessments and services addressing short-term and long-term changes in mountain natural hazards and water management have inherited the above limitations. The upcoming IPCC SROCC Chapter 2 “High Mountains” is mandated to provide an authoritative assessment of the state of knowledge on the long-term past and future changes in cryospheric components in the mountains of the world, sectoral impacts and responses.
Therefore, this is an opportune time for strong international cooperation and synergies, advocating on behalf of mountain regions in a changing climate, by translating science into policy action. The finding of the IPCC SROCC report will provide the baseline for conveying the sense of urgency in addressing issues with respect to hydro-climatic changes and their impacts in high mountains and their downstream effects, globally.
3.2 Coordination and governance
Experience has shown that at national and local levels, the responsibility for hydro-meteorological information and services, in general, and for mountain regions, in particular, rests with multiple agencies, organizations, and stakeholders, which frequently have overlapping or competing responsibilities. In many countries meteorological, hydrological and climate services are provided by different agencies, under different ministries.
The magnitude, quality, and sustainability of monitoring of changes in the cryosphere and other critical high mountain systems, the limited knowledge about their impacts and their service function are not fully compatible with their importance for the societies in mountain regions, and in lowlands, and the socio-economic needs of the affected regions. In the ‘value chain’, critical elements are still missing, or are under-developed.
Stakeholders from affected social and economic sectors are, often, not adequately engaged or integrated. Financial and institutional barriers limit the ability to develop and disseminate information on disaster risk management and adaptation, relevant to needs.
Communicating research results on climate and cryospheric science has remained a challenge, given the remoteness of changes. In many countries, there is a lack of capacity for translating scientific research outcomes on the service function of the mountain cryosphere, into language actionable in a broader social context.
As different countries have different political, administrative, and initial conditions systems, the development of collaborative capacity and actions, is difficult, affecting the ability and means to sensitize and influence different policy frameworks (resources, people, monies).
3.3 Availability and dissemination of observations, data and information
3.3.1 Observations and monitoring
Experience has shown many mountain regions remain insufficiently monitored, mostly due to cost, difficult access, extreme operating conditions, absence of institutional mandates, despite the increasing number of international programs focusing on them.
Meteorological stations are sparse at high elevations, providing an altitudinal bias in precipitation and other observations that makes extrapolation of these measurements for higher elevations, highly uncertain.
Hydrometric stations are disproportionately at low elevations and tend to measure larger mountain rivers, rather than headwater streams at high elevations.
The monitoring of snow, glaciers, permafrost, and of critical tropical highland ecosystems is sparse and uncoordinated, mostly operated within time-bound research projects.
3.3.2 Data availability
Even where observing programs exist, the access to available data is difficult, even restricted. Records of conventional meteorological observations are, often, discontinuous. Archival of available observations rarely receives the resource allocations needed, and existing data sources are lost due to fragmented across a multitude of operators, and the lack of harmonized data policies. As water is equally a commodity and a strategic resource, the access to cryosphere and water data is significantly restricted. Insufficient data exchange mechanisms across sectoral and political boundaries hamper the development of hydro-meteorological and climate services appropriate for the mountain regions.
Recent efforts to promote publication of mountain high elevation weather, snow, ice and water datasets through the International Network on Alpine Research Catchment Hydrology have resulted in a special issue of Earth System Science Data on “Hydrometeorological data from mountain and alpine research catchments” with 20 data papers from Austria, China, Russia, Lebanon, USA, Canada, France, and Spain https://www.earth-syst-sci-data.net/special_issue871.html.
3.3.3 Space observations

Progress has been made on addressing space-based high mountain cryosphere observing needs, by combining optical/radar imaging, altimetry and gravimetry, and available Digital Elevation Models (DEM) differencing from stereo optical data, however, many gaps remain and the assimilation of cryosphere space observation is limited.
There is a need for a consolidated approach to requirements for monitoring of high mountain cryosphere from space to enable the refocusing of strategic goals of space agencies, given their current/planned satellites. The existing observations are not fulfilling the spatio-temporal resolution required by users, e.g. for snow extent, melt, surging glacier, GLOF, or avalanche monitoring, and the combination of satellite data with In-situ data and Models is fundamental to bridge existing sampling issues.
There is still a lack of satellite products (measure solid precipitation, snow depth or SWE accurately), which can satisfy hydrological expectations concerning snow water monitoring in high mountain regions. Snow water equivalent is a crucial parameter for proper runoff modeling and warning at snow melt conditions. Estimation of water amounts remain challenging during melting snow conditions, which are of high importance for water resource management, power production, etc.
Global, freely available, standard Digital Elevation Models with 10-30m resolution, with periodic update are critically needed, particularly in dynamic or rapidly evolving regions of the cryosphere (e.g. glaciers), to facilitate optometric rectification of images. Processing all satellite data products with the same DEM would be of wide scale benefit, in particular for facilitating the operational use of high mountain cryosphere satellite products.
To fully address the remaining observation gaps on the space based monitoring of high mountain cryosphere, there is a need for developing systems comprising of coordinated observations from multiple, independent satellites, and purpose-built satellite constellations, or combinations of polar-orbiting and geostationary satellites.
3.3.3 Indigenous knowledge
In the absence of long-term instrumental records, indigenous and local knowledge play an critical role in mountain knowledge systems, in particular for monitoring and responding to natural hazards. However, this knowledge is insufficiently aggregated and coordinated with other knowledge elements, and often lost due to societal evolutions (outmigration, changes in livelihood options, disintegration of mountain communities).
3.4 Availability and maturity of scientific knowledge
In general, multiple atmospheric and surface components, in particular those related to changes in glaciers, snow, hydrology and permafrost, interact most directly with socio-ecological elements, and addressing these threats demands a multidisciplinary approach.
The status of scientific knowledge is very heterogeneous across and within mountain regions. Mountain-specific knowledge elements are most often built within local and national contexts, which leads to discontinuities at administrative and political borders, where mountains often are generally located.
Numerical weather prediction, climate models, and regional re-analyses face specific challenges in mountain regions, their performance being hampered by the lack of appropriate space resolution (too coarse grid spacing) and insufficient representation of processes operating in mountains environment.
The scientific understanding of social-ecological systems in high mountains needs to be substantially strengthened, along with the understanding of the ecosystem services and goods provided by the cryosphere and other critical systems in mountain regions and their human uses under rapid environmental and socio-economic development.
3.5 Prediction and operational services
The on-going provision of weather, water and climate services is inherently challenging in mountain regions where observational data is sparse, and topography plays an essential role; this work is further complicated by climate change.
Most often, weather, climate and water prediction systems are fragmented through differing national jurisdictions; where available, they are designed for lowlands, having insufficient spatial resolution to adequately represent complex terrain in mountains, lacking sufficient representation of the cryosphere to provide reliable forecasts and predictions.
Mountain ranges can be under the jurisdiction of multiple states and supply water to multiple river basins – making the operation of prediction and monitoring services fragmented and challenging to coordinate. The impacts and social costs of insufficient prediction capacity in mountains is transmitted downstream by rivers, through mountain hydrological systems that are incompletely understood.
3.6 Investment mechanisms
Important investments have been made, internationally, for establishing monitoring and services on water, weather, and climate in mountain regions, at regional and country level, through multiple financing mechanisms (World Bank, Green Climate Fund, Climate Adaptation Fund, National Development agencies, etc.). However, many campaigns have been in the context of focused research projects, or had limited coordination and time horizon, with limited consideration for long-term continuity and sustainability of observations, data infrastructure, or services.
Section 4: Recommendations actions
4.1 Goals
The long term goal is to ensure that people who live in mountains and those who are influenced directly by mountain earth system processes downstream, receive ‘fit for purpose’ hydrological, meteorological, and climate services at levels that recognize the importance of mountain regions as a home of the cryosphere, and source of global freshwater and ecosystem services to the world.
It is important to recognize and utilize available enabling factors for developing end-to-end cryosphere service approaches across regions and borders. Clear linkages between changes in mountains and impacts on lowlands, with appropriate attribution and cost correlations, could support requests for dedicated resources. This would require vulnerability and climate risk assessments and studies to further identify and quantify most plausible scenarios of changes in the cryosphere by categories of consequences, e.g. economic, food security, water security,
As noted in the HIMAP report (2019)3 “There should be more pursuits for mountain perspectives to form an integral part in any discussions about future plans for sustainable development in the context of climate change. That means not just highlighting the vulnerabilities and fragilities inherent to mountain locations, but also emphasizing the resilience and strength that mountain people and communities bring when seeking to deal with these challenges. New financing mechanisms for climate change mitigation and adaptation and for infrastructure development offer valuable opportunities for increased investment in mountain regions, are needed. “
4.2 Mountain advocacy and policy
Sustained advocacy is needed, to ensure that ‘mountains’ are recognized as a specific category relative to weather and climate processes and the corresponding societal needs, at international and national level.
Sustained focus and visibility of challenges of mountain regions are needed at ministerial level in Member countries. this is to achievable with regular engagement in relevant events and initiatives. Relevant UN agencies are invited to join efforts and use opportunities like the High Level Political Forum and the Climate Action Summit in New York in 2019, Santiago Climate Change Conference, which will feature the 25th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP 25) to the UNFCCC and meetings of the UNFCCC subsidiary bodies, 2-13 December 2019, to promote these goals.
Other opportunities include a dedicated climate change theme for the International Mountain Day (yearly, on 11 December), the declaration of another UN International Year of Mountains (YoM)4, potentially linked to the proposed International Year of Snow and Ice.
Mountains specific indicators need to be developed and included in local, national, regional and global reporting mechanisms and review processes of global goals and commitments5 such as National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA), nationally determined contributions (NDCs) for COP processes, and voluntary national reviews (VNRs) for SDG and Sendai process for Disaster Risk Reduction. Mountain-relevant indicators need to be included in periodical review processes of agency in the UN system (e.g. WMO, FAO, UNESCO-IHP, others), and others (e.g. IUGG, etc.).

Coordination mechanisms at the regional and global levels are necessary to support transboundary policy goals of neighboring mountain countries, and to enhance cooperation in the mountain space, as are the Alpine and the Carpathian Conventions and the Andean Mountain Initiative. At the global level, a strengthened Mountain Partnership could serve as a UN platform for promoting sustainable mountain development and advocacy dialogue.
As a longer-term goal, a UN convention for Mountains, should be explored, across all thematic domains, food, health, climate change, disaster reduction, with potential for coordinating effective evidence-backed advocacy from the mountain communities, and increasing their visibility.
4.3 Coordination and governance
At national level, effective coordination across different government ministries, agencies, academia, economic actors including the private sector, and the public, along the information value chain, and across jurisdictions, is a high priority.
Leveraging the knowledge and influence of stakeholders from affected economic sectors and service providers, are effective mechanisms to develop and disseminate information on disaster risk management and adaptation, relevant to needs, with a focus on developing countries and climate hot-spots.
The Mountain Partnership has encouraged countries to establish national mountain committees. Currently, Argentina, Chile, Malawi and Madagascar have such mechanisms which bring together players with interests in the mountain regions of the respective countries. Other countries, mostly in Latin America, have some institutional mechanisms.
WMO and other UN agencies need to support the strengthening of mandates of specialized national agencies and institutions, such as the National Meteorological and Hydrological Services, within the national context. Facilitate the availability of arguments to advocate for coordinated policies and necessary resources for adequate capacity for enhancing their functions and outputs, for supporting their constituencies in dealing with climate threats. A particular focus needs to be put on building stronger linkages between hydrology and meteorology for mountain regions in terms of monitoring, modelling, in support of adaptation to climate change impacts, coupled with financial quantifying the absence of required services (the cost of disasters).
4.4 Availability and dissemination of observations, data, and information

Sound scientific information is needed to raise awareness and ensure that mountains are included in the national and international political agendas. Earth observations (space and in-situ) for mountain regions are needed as input to Earth system models, for extending their capabilities for mountain regions, for example, debris flows, avalanches, etc. Thus, it is recommended that the Earth system observations (space and in-situ) in mountain regions, and in particular for climate, cryosphere, and other critical high elevation systems, are enhanced and optimized by strengthening and complementing existing monitoring, as operated by various operational and research agencies. Restricted mandate of operational space agencies means there is limited advocacy for operational satellite capabilities beyond the traditional atmospheric/meteorological/ice service domain. As a result, operational advocacy needed for gravimetry based satellite operational capability from cryosphere/hydrology/water users in the future (critical component of GGOS and unified height system), together with non-commercial global digital elevation/terrain model standards required for common interpretation, and most importantly, the free/open access to satellite data products, as a requirement to stimulate development of new pilot products and operational services. WMO active stimulus of space agency engagements is needed to supplement existing available satellite resources and to make coordinated progress towards meeting user needs for frequency of revisit, particularly in low latitude high mountain cryosphere regions.
Continuous research for better observations in mountainous terrain, including surface–based networks (representativeness, maintenance), surface-based remote sensing and satellite retrieval algorithms, is further recommended. Innovative technology, remote sensing, GIS technology, human observations of local specific phenomena are increasingly available, however their high costs, complexity, and across border application (e.g. satellite observations); addressing these require enhanced international coordination and cooperation among scientific, operational, funding and political actors.
Feasible policies and practical mechanisms (e.g. standardization and interoperability ) are a priority area to address the sharing of, access to, and the use of different sources of data, from research and operational programs, including across borders (e.g. at basin level), to support and sustain relevant applications. Basin level financing of observations and co-ownership of data upstream-downstream, is a potential mechanism to enhance the access to data, recognizing the monetary value of water and cryosphere data.
Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge could be addressed through citizen science observation networks alongside conventional and innovative methods.
The WMO Integrated Global Observing System (WIGOS) framework provides the mechanism for optimization of observations and the integration of data. Other international initiatives, like INARCH, TPE, the MRI’s EDW Working Group and GEO-GNOME’s ‘Unified High Elevation Observation Platform’ network (UHOPs)6, and the Group on Earth Observations Global Network on Observations and Information in Mountain Environments, GEO-GNOME, which is co-led by the MRI, are potential contributors to these goals.
4.5 Science and innovation supporting mountain services
The implementation of relevant hydro-meteorological and climate observations-based services in mountain regions require the development of additional scientific knowledge of the mountain cryosphere and mountain water cycle, by improving the understanding of the water-atmosphere-cryosphere interaction and its influence on weather and climate systems at multiple scales. These will enable the availability of environmental prediction capabilities of the integrated water cycle.
The additional science topics needed, specific to high altitudes and complex terrain, are:
 Developing early warning systems for mountain-specific threats (e.g., orographic precipitation, extreme precipitation events, floods, droughts, fires, avalanches, foehn type wind [storms], air pollution); with a focus on regional (not national or river basin), transboundary scales;
 glacier (incl. debris covered) and permafrost related topics;
 mountain-specific climate change (e.g. elevation dependent warming [and other variables]) for all time scales (including the past);
 processes determining runoff and streamflow generation – especially in connection with water resources and availability in the regions downstream of the mountain areas (where billions of people depend on those).
Standard science challenges (quality of weather forecast, reliability of climate scenario information, data coverage, etc.) need to be answered in the context of for high mountain areas. Existing procedures usually employed in observational data quality assurance, numerical weather prediction (data assimilation, physical parameterizations like planetary boundary layer (PBL) or radiation) for climate scenarios and hydrological simulations are not suited for application in mountain areas (in some cases even developed under the explicit assumption of flat and homogeneous terrain).
The following science priority activities are recommended:
 Surface-atmosphere coupling (cycles of water, energy, atmospheric compounds such as greenhouse gases) over mountain ranges – where the ‘surface’ is more than the traditional immediate surface, but includes terrain at all spatial scales.
 Regional climate modeling, and in particular regional ensemble-based coordinative efforts need to achieve a spatial resolution closer to that of NWP (order 1 km) to cover mountain ranges. Corresponding downscaling techniques, are needed.
 Intercomparisons of numerical weather prediction (NWP) and (regional) climate models, cryospheric models, hydrological models, over mountain ranges.
 Diagnostic coupled atmospheric-cryospheric-hydrological models operating at “snowdrift resolving scales” are needed in mountains in order to resolve the processes forming avalanches, glaciers and snow patches that control mountain streamflow generation, cryospheric features and hazards.
 Interdisciplinary and integrated research spanning all dimensions of climate risk to socio-ecosystems and their components/services (hazard, vulnerability, exposure).
Furthermore, there is a critical governance dimension for advancing science for mountain regions, as different science areas (atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere) need to be engaged, and in most countries these are the responsibility of multiple institutions.
4.6 Prediction and operational services
The sustainability of water management and disaster risk reductions services is underpinned by dedicated and strengthened mandates of specialized agencies, mountain specifics scientific knowledge, sustainable observations, sustainable capacities, and access to reliable investments, in particular in developing countries.

Priority needs to be given to enhancing the “fit-for-purpose” design of existing hydro-meteorological and climate services, to include the specific conditions of mountain regions and existing experience, rather than developing new services. These need to be coupled with pragmatic approaches to an end-to-end and longer-term perspective, within the framework of the ‘value chain’ from monitoring to service functions for different sectors, with a focus on critical elements which are missing or are under-developed.
Needed mountain and region specific early warning systems and alert systems (e.g., glacier lake outburst floods – GLOFs, avalanche forecasting in regions currently not covered), and associated capacity development, as priority service areas, could be developed within the framework of existing programmes and initiatives, e.g. Multi-Hazard Early Warning Systems (MHEWS), Climate Services and Information Systems (CSIS), the Global Cryosphere Watch (GCW), Climate Risk and Early Warning Systems (CREWS), Global Framework for Climate Services (GFCS), etc., by enhancing their mandates, and include mountain specific functions, and building on capacity which already exists in many countries and regions.
Transferability of know-how in a sustained manner is a critical bottleneck to be addressed. Linkages between on-going scientific research findings and operational needs in mountain environment need to be iteratively reinforced. Better regional integration and better use of existing knowledge elements, intra- and inter-operability of data platforms (observations, model outputs, research) upon which services are built, are key for enabling progress.
4.7 Investment mechanisms
More investments and specific policies are needed to ensure that mountains remain the water towers of the world. Investment mechanisms supporting the development of enhanced services in the mountain environments must include provisions for sustaining capacity and infrastructure, for long-term impact and benefits. Specifically, the funding models need to include an enhanced total cost of ownership (TCO), with considerations for investment and operational costs, and performance indicators based on data and information delivered. Internationally funded projects need to require the engagement, development, and sustainability of local expert capacity, as a critical element of success.
Coordination at country level of multiple concurrent initiatives and funded projects, is needed, to strengthen the national and regional capacity, and avoid further fragmentation.
4.8 An Integrated High Mountain Observation and Prediction System
As an important step in addressing the urgent needs for information services in mountain regions, WMO in coordination with UN agencies, is urged to initiative an Integrated High Mountain Observation and Prediction System around key mountain ranges and headwaters around the world, for addressing the front lines of climate, cryospheric and hydrological change, and natural hazard risk reduction where they are generated and then transmitted downstream to large segments of the Earth’s human population and ecosystems.
The Integrated High Mountain Observation and Prediction System, should strive to develop:
 coordinated enhanced mountain surface and remote sensing observations coupled to integrated mountain prediction systems.
 open-access to data of high quality as the foundation to reliable science and services.

 further our understanding of feedbacks between the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the cryosphere, translate greenhouse gas emissions scenarios into cryospheric impacts, based on improvements of physical models and free access to high spatial and temporal resolution simulations.
 increase the capability of integrated mountain weather, climate, water, ecological and cryospheric prediction systems, through enhanced understanding of mountain hydro-meteorology and cryospheric science.
 Integrate these prediction systems into river basin hydrological and water management prediction systems, and estimate impacts on food and energy production;

 promote mechanisms for cooperation at national and international level between scientific and operational structures on matters of observations, data exchange, data assimilation activities, and fostering innovation.

A Year of Mountain Prediction, should be launched, similar to the Year of Polar Prediction.
Efforts should be made to build a mountain focused international partnership framework, with WMO as the topical, and UNESCO, UNDP, UNEP, UNFCCC as capacity-building partners, exploiting these organizations’ respective long-lasting experience.
This framework should (1) support and promote internationally coordinated research initiatives, aligned with specific needs (e.g., GCW, MRI, Geo_GNOME, INARCH, TPE, TEAMx); (2) raise and sustain the awareness of mountain-related topics within partner organizations and their bodies, programs and reports (e.g., IPCC); and (3) to help introduce mountains-related challenges to science funding agencies and potential science sponsors, as well as to support them in their decision-making processes.
Section 5. High Mountain Summit
The High Mountain Summit, under the leadership of WMO in coordination with other UN agencies, Members, social partners, scientific community, funding agencies, is a timely mechanism for convening the international community for taking practical steps towards translating in practice the recommendations outlined in this paper.
The Summit will engage relevant local actors and decision-makers in the provision and use of hydrometeorological and climate services and foster a high-level dialogue, to develop a coordinated approach to water and climate adaptation policies addressing socioeconomic impacts of changing mountain cryosphere and ecosystems.
These engagements should lead to build a mountain-focused international partnership framework, engaging relevant international agencies. The Summit needs to prepare a roadmap for addressing the key recommendations included in this paper, by focusing on:

1. Leverage the influence of relevant stakeholders, rights-holders and funding agencies in support of an integrated approach across all global policy frameworks, to sustainably address the long-term effects of changes in mountain regions.

2. Mobilize public and private sector leaders in leveraging internationally funded initiatives,and ensuring that high mountains are identified as priority areas for policy, investments, and projects.

3. Identify practical steps for strengthening the provision of hydrological, meteorological and climate prediction services, for optimizing and enhancing cryosphere and high mountain observations and data, and for advancing the scientific research to address knowledge gaps.

4. Identify approaches for early warning systems for mountain-specific threats , e.g., glacier lake outburst floods (GLOFs), permafrost related, avalanche forecasting , extreme precipitation events, foehn type wind (storms), air pollution, with a focus on regional transboundary scales;

5. Promoting closer and iterative links between science and policy at all levels of governance, ensuring science-based input to policy development and long term adaptation strategies.
The sessions of the Summit should lead to recommendations on specific pilot projects, to demonstrate the feasibility and the benefits of specific efforts and investment in integrated high-mountain observation and prediction, in different regions of the world, and including relevant actors, along the full value-chain.
Annexes 1 to 4 provide the Concept Note, Provisional program of the Summit, countries identified for engagement in the Summit, and a list of relevant projects, underway and relevant to the scope of the Summit.

Annex 1: Concept Note
HIGH MOUNTAIN SUMMIT
29-31 October 2019, World Meteorological Organization Headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland
CONTEXT AND RELEVANCE
Rising global temperatures are causing unprecedented changes in precipitation distribution in the mountain regions. Mountain cryosphere – glaciers, snow, and permafrost – and high-altitude ecosystems, such as páramo systems in the tropical Andes, provide and regulate freshwater resources for around half of the world’s population. The on-going changes in the mountain cryosphere affect sustainability of these ecosystems and increase risks related to natural hazards. These impacts have cascading and, often, devastating effects for populations, economies, infrastructure, and ecosystems in mountain regions, and downstream, including for densely populated lowland areas. In many places, these threats exacerbate existing vulnerabilities of socio-ecosystems related to poverty, insufficient infrastructure, environmental degradation, leading to food insecurity, migration, among others.
Scientifically sound climate and hydro-meteorological data, prediction, information, and services, e.g. early warning systems, are key to strengthening local, national, and regional climate resilience and adaptation. They provide effective tools to monitor and report on specific indicators in support of sustainable mountain development. They are essential for informing policy and decision-making on optimizing the allocation and use of resources, related to water security and risk management in all regions which are affected by changes in high mountain regions.
HIGH MOUNTAIN SUMMIT
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the UN system’s authoritative global voice on weather, climate, and water, is taking the lead on addressing these challenges in collaboration with partners.
As a first step, WMO will host a High Mountain Summit on 29-31 October 2019 in Geneva (Switzerland).
OBJECTIVES
The High Mountain Summit will use the convening role of WMO to synergize the cooperative efforts of partners engaged, leading to the development of a science-based path forward to provide socially relevant, urgently needed, accessible, reliable, and timely knowledge and information systems supporting risk reduction in mountain and downstream regions, and sustainable development of mountain regions.
The Summit will identify and evaluate policy, scientific, observation, and services options for addressing the cascading effects resulting from the unprecedented climate changes observed in high mountains and their impacts on the cryosphere, ecosystems, hydrology, oceans and downstream water management, community water supply, and production of food and energy.

The Summit will engage partners, high-level stakeholders, practitioners, and research communities, and is expected to convene approximately 150 participants. The Summit will include high –level opening and closing plenary sessions, four thematic sessions, with keynotes and panel and plenary discussions, as well as a photo exhibition, an information area, and a welcome reception for further knowledge-sharing and fostering the community.
 Day 1 will focus on outlining expectations and the international context, as well as on stock-taking of hydro-meteorological and climate services in high mountain regions, from a societal benefit and a user perspective.
 Day 2 and the first part of Day 3 will focus on identifying evaluate services, observation and scientific gaps and priority actions required to bridge the capacity gap in hydrological, meteorological, and climate service delivery for sustainable mountain development.
 Day 3 will conclude with recapping the key outcomes, adopting a Call for Action, and in formulating a roadmap for priority actions and engagements, including potential pilot projects.
GLOBAL CONTEXT
The Summit is convened shortly after the September 2019 publication of the IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC), which includes a dedicated chapter on high mountain areas. The Summit will be followed by the Santiago Climate Change Conference, which will feature the 25th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP 25) to the UNFCCC and meetings of the UNFCCC subsidiary bodies, from 2-13 December 2019. In 2021, the IPCC Working Group II Report on Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability will publish the cross-chapter paper on mountains.
The outcomes of the Summit aim to address the needs of WMO Members regarding the monitoring and reporting on targets within the Sendai Framework, Paris Agreement, the 2030 Agenda, and the Sustainable Development Goals. In the broader context, the outcomes will contribute to the Framework for Action for Implementing the 2030 Agenda for Mountains (2017) approved by Mountain Partnership members, and the International Decade for Action: Water for Sustainable Development (2018-2028).
EXPECTED OUTCOMES
The Summit will focus on mountain water resources and disaster risk reduction and resilience, seeking to:

6. Leverage the influence of relevant stakeholders, rights-holders and funding agencies in support of an integrated approach across all global policy frameworks, to sustainably address the long-term effects of changes in mountain regions.

7. Mobilize public and private sector leaders in leveraging internationally funded initiatives,and ensuring that high mountains are identified as priority areas for policy, investments, and projects.

8. Identify practical elements for strengthening the provision of hydrological, meteorological and climate prediction services, for optimizing and enhancing cryosphere and high mountain observations and data, and for advancing the scientific research to address knowledge gaps.

9. Identify approaches for early warning systems for mountain-specific threats , e.g., glacier lake outburst floods (GLOFs), permafrost related, avalanche forecasting , extreme precipitation events, foehn type wind (storms), air pollution, with a focus on regional transboundary scales;

For more information, please visit the Summit’s Website at: http://highmountainsummit.wmo.int/

Annex 2: Provisional Program for the HIGH MOUNTAIN SUMMIT
End-to-end high mountain hydro-meteorological and climate services to address water and hazard management needs
Four overarching High Mountain Grand Challenges have been proposed to guide the development of a long-term roadmap for action addressing challenges related to changes in high mountains. These will support the stock taking process planned at the High Mountain Summit, and will guide how may WMO lead the international community to:
o Address socially relevant user-led and rights-holders led questions on how to adapt and how to manage mountain cryosphere, ecosystems, hydrology and development to promote ecosystem conservation, provide social benefits and direct sustainable development along ‘climate resilient development pathways’.
o Identify and address critical gaps in mountain earth systems science, observations and predictive capacity through advancing science, observing systems and predictive models in the context of identifying system and societal resilience to global change and development pressures in mountains.
o Develop global mountain earth system forecasting and prediction systems to inform mountain communities of policy options to become resilient and to reduce and manage risk from mountain-based extreme events and climate change, both in the mountain headwaters and downstream.
o Urge and facilitate the advancement of knowledge and implementation of these systems and solutions by member states and partners for mutual benefit within a global framework.
The Summit will include:
Segment 1
High Level engagements for setting the international context and outlining the expected outcomes leading to the preparation of a Summit Call for Action.
Segment 2
Identify user needs for socially relevant, urgently needed knowledge and information systems for risk reduction in mountain and downstream regions, supporting adaptation to climate change and sustainable development of mountain regions
Segment 3 Identify the necessary prerequisites for closing the capacity gap on weather, climate, hydrological and environmental services, supporting Sustainable Mountain Development
Segment 4
Identify critical gaps and opportunities in Earth system observations and data availability in High Mountain regions, as the technical foundation for sustainable services and research.
Segment 5
Identify critical knowledge gaps and opportunities in mountain earth systems science and predictive capability needed for closing the gap.
Segment 6
High Level, to bring it all, together:
 Adopt a Call for Action on High Mountain Weather, Climate, and Water.
 Identify a roadmap of actions and engagements , with 2-3 pilot projects.
Each segment is expected to lead to 1-2 key messages to be reflected in the statement/ call for action, and reference commitments for engagements supporting these initiatives, will be strongly encouraged.
Each segment will have a panel with 5-6 members, and a moderator, and it will include 1-2 keynote speeches, panel discussions, and Forum or breakout session discussions.

Annex 4: Relevant initiatives
– Implementation of the Global Cryosphere Watch, providing authoritative information on the state of the cryosphere.
– The implementation of the Climate Service Information Systems at regional level, including the Third Pole Regional Climate Centres (TP RCC), and the potential for developing climate services for mountainous regions, potentially, in conjunction with existing Regional Climate Services.
– Experience gained during build-up of WMO´s World Hydrological Cycle Observing System (WHYCOS) over the past 2 decades, with the aim of extending its coverage to high mountain areas not already included in WHYCOS.
– The development of Impact Based Forecasting and Multi-Hazard Impact-based Forecast and Warning Services.
– The international projects on High-Impact Weather and the Sub-seasonal to Seasonal Prediction.
– The Polar Prediction Project and the Year of Polar Prediction (YOPP), are models for a possible “Year of Mountain Prediction”, for significantly improving the environmental prediction capabilities, for mountain regions, with “multi-hazard” approaches.
– Research activities coordinated through the Global Energy and Water Cycle Exchanges (GEWEX) and Climate and Cryosphere (CliC) projects, of the World Climate Research Programme.
– Research activities associated with the International Network of Alpine Research Catchment Hydrology (INARCH)
– Global Water Future’s (GWF) Mountain Water Futures project and its Core Modelling initiative on Planetary Freshwater Prediction with an emphasis on river basins with mountain headwaters
– Implementation of the WMO Integrated Global Observing System (WIGOS).
– Targeted activities within the Global Framework for Climate Services (GFCS).
– Relevant Group on Earth Observation (GEO) Flagships, Initiatives and Community Activities, such as GEO-GNOME (Global Network on Observations and Information on Mountain Environments, co-led by MRI), GEO-Cold Regions and others.
– Research activities coordinated via Mountain Research Initiative (MRI), including its “Mountain Observations Working Group” and “Elevation Dependent Warming Working Group”, both of which include scientific monitoring capacity and development in high mountains (e.g. via Unified High Elevation Observation Platforms) and inputs and activities related to GEO-GNOME.
– HydroMet Alliance between WMO and World Bank.
– Contributions to the discussion for the UN International Year of Snow and Ice an initiative adopted by the 23rd session of the Intergovernmental council of IHP (June, 2018) and the 70th session of the Executive Council of WMO.
– Snow, Glacier and Water Resources activities of the International Hydrological Programme of UNESCO